Democracy, Abolition and the Road to Confederation

The decades between the late 1700s and 1867 were transformative ones for British North America. Democracy arrived gradually through elected assemblies and, after armed rebellion, through responsible government. Canada played a pioneering role in the abolition of slavery. The War of 1812 tested the young colonies and forged a distinct identity. And in 1867, the Fathers of Confederation brought the country formally into being. This subchapter traces that entire arc — from the first elected assemblies to the birth of the Dominion of Canada.

The Beginnings of Democracy

Democratic institutions in Canada developed gradually and peacefully. The first representative assembly An elected legislative body through which citizens choose representatives to make laws on their behalf — the foundation of parliamentary democracy. was elected in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1758. Prince Edward Island followed in 1773 and New Brunswick in 1785.

The Constitutional Act of 1791 An Act of the British Parliament that divided the Province of Quebec into Upper Canada and Lower Canada, granting each an elected legislative assembly for the first time. was a landmark. It divided the Province of Quebec into two distinct territories: Upper Canada The mainly Loyalist, Protestant and English-speaking colony created by the Constitutional Act of 1791, which later became Ontario. (later Ontario), which was predominantly Loyalist, Protestant and English-speaking, and Lower Canada The heavily Catholic and French-speaking colony created by the Constitutional Act of 1791, which later became Quebec. (later Quebec), which was heavily Catholic and French-speaking. The Act granted elected legislative assemblies to both Canadas for the first time. It was also the moment the name Canada became official. The Atlantic colonies and the two Canadas became known collectively as British North America The collective term for the British-controlled colonies in North America — the Atlantic colonies, Upper Canada and Lower Canada — before Confederation in 1867. .

Abolition of Slavery

Slavery has existed throughout history, across Asia, Africa, the Middle East and the Americas. The first movement to abolish the transatlantic slave trade emerged in the British Parliament in the late 1700s, and Canada was at the forefront of this effort.

In 1793, Upper Canada The province led by Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe, which became the first province in the British Empire to move toward abolishing slavery in 1793. — led by Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe Upper Canada's first Lieutenant Governor, a Loyalist military officer, founder of the City of York (now Toronto), and the man who made Upper Canada the first province in the British Empire to move toward abolishing slavery. , a Loyalist military officer — became the first province in the British Empire to move toward abolition. Simcoe was also the founder of the City of York, now Toronto. In 1807, the British Parliament prohibited the buying and selling of enslaved people, and in 1833 abolished slavery throughout the entire British Empire.

Thousands of enslaved people escaped from the United States, followed “the North Star” and reached Canada via the Underground Railroad A Christian anti-slavery network of secret routes and safe houses that helped thousands of enslaved people escape from the United States to freedom in Canada. — a Christian anti-slavery network. A significant figure in this history was Mary Ann Shadd Cary A prominent anti-slavery activist who in 1853 became the first woman publisher in Canada, co-founding and editing The Provincial Freeman — a newspaper dedicated to anti-slavery, Black immigration to Canada, temperance and upholding British rule. , who in 1853 became the first woman publisher in Canada, helping to found and edit The Provincial Freeman, a weekly newspaper dedicated to anti-slavery, Black immigration to Canada, temperance and upholding British rule.

A Growing Economy

Canada’s first companies emerged during the French and British colonial periods and competed for the fur trade. The Hudson's Bay Company The trading company that came to dominate the fur trade in the northwest, with posts at Fort Garry (Winnipeg), Fort Edmonton, Fort Langley (near Vancouver) and Fort Victoria — all of which later grew into cities. — employing French, British and Aboriginal workers — dominated trade across the northwest from Fort Garry (Winnipeg) and Fort Edmonton to Fort Langley (near Vancouver) and Fort Victoria, trading posts that grew into cities. The first financial institutions opened in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Montreal Stock Exchange opened in 1832. For centuries Canada’s economy rested on farming and the export of natural resources — fur, fish and timber — transported by roads, lakes, rivers and canals.

The War of 1812

After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, the Royal Navy ruled the seas. The British Empire resisted Napoleon’s bid to dominate Europe, which led to American resentment over British interference with their shipping. Believing Canada would be easy to conquer, the United States launched an invasion in June 1812. They were mistaken.

Canadian volunteers and First Nations fighters joined British soldiers in Canada’s defence. The Shawnee, led by Chief Tecumseh A Shawnee leader who allied with British and Canadian forces during the War of 1812 to resist the American invasion. , were among the First Nations allies. Major-General Sir Isaac Brock A British commander who captured Detroit in the War of 1812 before being killed defending against an American attack at Queenston Heights, near Niagara Falls. captured Detroit but was killed defending against an American attack at Queenston Heights, near Niagara Falls — a battle the Americans lost. In 1813, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry A French-Canadian officer who turned back 4,000 American invaders with just 460 soldiers at Châteauguay, south of Montreal, in 1813. and 460 soldiers — mostly French Canadiens — turned back 4,000 American invaders at Châteauguay, south of Montreal.

That same year, the Americans burned Government House and the Parliament Buildings in York (now Toronto). In retaliation in 1814, Major-General Robert Ross A British commander who led an expedition from Nova Scotia that burned the White House and other public buildings in Washington, D.C., in 1814, in retaliation for the burning of York. Ross died in battle soon afterwards and was buried in Halifax with full military honours. led an expedition from Nova Scotia that burned the White House and other public buildings in Washington, D.C. Ross died in battle soon afterwards and was buried in Halifax with full military honours.

By 1814, the American attempt to conquer Canada had failed. The British invested in a costly Canadian defence system — the Citadels at Halifax and Québec City, the naval drydock at Halifax and Fort Henry at Kingston are all popular historic sites today. The present-day Canada–U.S. border is partly an outcome of the War of 1812, which ensured that Canada would remain independent of the United States. The Duke of Wellington sent some of his best soldiers to defend Canada in 1814, and chose Bytown (Ottawa) as the endpoint of the Rideau Canal — part of a network of forts to prevent further American invasion. Wellington, who defeated Napoleon in 1815, therefore played a direct role in founding Canada’s national capital.

The Rebellions of 1837–38 and Responsible Government

In the 1830s, reformers in both Upper and Lower Canada grew frustrated with the pace of democratic progress. Some believed Canada should adopt American republican values or even join the United States. Armed rebellions broke out in 1837–38 near Montreal and in Toronto. The rebels did not have enough public support to succeed — they were defeated by British troops and Canadian volunteers, and a number were hanged or exiled. Some exiles later returned to Canada.

Lord Durham, an English reformer sent to report on the rebellions, recommended that Upper and Lower Canada be merged and given responsible government A system of government in which the executive must maintain the support of a majority of elected representatives to govern. If the government loses a confidence vote, it must resign — the system Canada uses today. . This meant the Crown’s ministers could only govern with the support of a majority of elected representatives — the system Canada still uses today. Controversially, Durham also argued that the fastest route to progress for the Canadiens was assimilation into English-speaking Protestant culture, demonstrating a complete misunderstanding of French Canadians who were determined to preserve their distinct identity.

Some of the reformers involved — including Sir Étienne-Paschal Taché A Canadian reformer who later became one of the Fathers of Confederation. and Sir George-Étienne Cartier A reformer and Quebec lawyer who later became a key architect of Confederation, leading Quebec into union and helping negotiate the entry of western territories. — later became Fathers of Confederation, as did a former member of the voluntary government militia in Upper Canada: Sir John A. Macdonald A lawyer from Kingston, Ontario who would become Canada's first Prime Minister after Confederation in 1867. .

In 1840, Upper and Lower Canada were united as the Province of Canada. Reformers including Sir Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine A champion of democracy and French-language rights who became the first leader of a responsible government in the Canadas in 1848–49. and Robert Baldwin An Upper Canadian reformer who worked alongside La Fontaine to achieve responsible government. , in parallel with Joseph Howe A Nova Scotian reformer who championed responsible government in Nova Scotia. in Nova Scotia, worked with British governors toward responsible government. The first British North American colony to achieve full responsible government was Nova Scotia, in 1847–48. In 1848–49, the governor of United Canada, Lord Elgin The Governor of United Canada who, with encouragement from London, introduced responsible government to the Canadas in 1848–49. , introduced it to the Canadas. La Fontaine — a champion of democracy and French-language rights — became the first leader of a responsible government in the Canadas.

Confederation: The Birth of Canada

From 1864 to 1867, representatives of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and the Province of Canada — with British support — worked to build a new country. These men are known as the Fathers of Confederation The political leaders who worked between 1864 and 1867 to establish the Dominion of Canada. . They created two levels of government — federal and provincial. The old Province of Canada was split into Ontario and Quebec, which, together with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, formed the new country: the Dominion of Canada The new country established on July 1, 1867 by the British North America Act, with each province electing its own legislature and controlling areas such as education and health. . Each province would elect its own legislature and control areas such as education and health.

The British Parliament passed the British North America Act in 1867. The Dominion of Canada was officially born on July 1, 1867. Until 1982, July 1 was celebrated as “Dominion Day.” Today it is known as Canada Day.

The name Dominion of Canada was suggested in 1864 by Sir Leonard Tilley An elected official and Father of Confederation from New Brunswick who suggested the name 'Dominion of Canada' in 1864, inspired by Psalm 72 of the Bible. , an elected official and Father of Confederation from New Brunswick. He was inspired by Psalm 72 of the Bible, which refers to “dominion from sea to sea and from the river to the ends of the earth.” The phrase embodied the vision of a powerful, united, wealthy and free country spanning a continent. The title was written into the Constitution, used officially for about 100 years and remains part of Canada’s heritage today.