3.3: Britain in the Middle Ages

Wars at Home and Abroad

The period from the Norman Conquest until roughly 1485 is known as the Middle Ages, or the medieval period. It was a time marked by almost continuous conflict. English kings were frequently engaged in battles with Welsh, Scottish, and Irish nobles over territorial control. In Wales, the English were successful in asserting their dominance. In 1284, King Edward I of England introduced the Statute of Rhuddlan, officially annexing Wales to the English Crown. Large castles, such as Conwy and Caernarfon, were constructed to help secure this control. By the mid-15th century, the last Welsh rebellions had been quashed, and English laws, along with the English language, were introduced across Wales.

In Scotland, the English kings had less success. In 1314, the Scots, under the leadership of Robert the Bruce, defeated the English at the Battle of Bannockburn, allowing Scotland to remain independent from English control.

At the start of the Middle Ages, Ireland was a separate and independent country. The English initially came to Ireland as soldiers to assist an Irish king but later established their own settlements. By 1200, the English controlled an area around Dublin, known as the Pale, while some influential Irish lords in other regions acknowledged the authority of the English king.

During this period, English kings also engaged in wars beyond Britain. Many English knights took part in the Crusades, where European Christians sought control of the Holy Land. English kings also fought a prolonged conflict with France, known as the Hundred Years War, despite it lasting 116 years. One of the most famous battles in this conflict was the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, where King Henry V led a greatly outnumbered English force to victory over the French. By the 1450s, however, the English had withdrawn from France.

The Black Death

During the medieval period, the Normans introduced a system of land ownership known as feudalism. Under this system, the king distributed land to his lords in exchange for military service. These landowners were required to provide a certain number of men to the army. While some peasants owned land, most were serfs who worked on their lord’s land. They were given small plots to grow food for themselves but, in return, had to work for their lord and were not free to leave the estate. A similar system developed in southern Scotland, while in the north of Scotland and in Ireland, land was controlled by clans, which were powerful family groups.

In 1348, a devastating disease, most likely the plague, arrived in Britain. This became known as the Black Death and caused the deaths of approximately one-third of the population in England, Scotland, and Wales, making it one of the worst catastrophes in British history. Following the Black Death, with a smaller population, there was less demand for cereal crops, and labour shortages ensued. This led to peasants demanding higher wages, and new social classes began to form. Among them were large landowners (later known as the gentry), and many people moved from rural areas to towns, where increasing wealth contributed to the rise of a strong middle class.

In Ireland, the Black Death took many lives, especially within the Pale, reducing the area under English control for a period.

Legal and Political Changes

The Rise of Parliament

During the Middle Ages, the institution of Parliament began to evolve into the form we know today. It originated from the king’s council of advisers, which was made up of important noblemen and Church leaders.

Before 1215, the king’s power was largely unrestricted. However, in that year, King John was forced by his noblemen to accept certain demands. This led to the creation of the Magna Carta (meaning the Great Charter). The Magna Carta established the principle that even the king was subject to the law. It protected the rights of the nobility and limited the king’s ability to impose taxes or make laws without involving his noblemen in these decisions.

Parliament’s Structure

In England, the king would call parliaments to consult with his nobles, especially when he needed to raise funds. Over time, the number of attendees at these parliaments grew, and two distinct parts, or Houses, were formed:

A similar parliamentary structure developed in Scotland, which included three Estates: the lords, the commons, and the clergy.

The Development of the Legal System

During this time, the legal system also evolved. One important principle was the independence of judges from the government. In England, judges established common law through a process of using precedents (decisions made in earlier cases) and tradition. In contrast, Scotland developed its legal system by codifying laws, meaning they were written down.

A Distinct National Identity

The Evolution of the English Language

The Middle Ages saw the development of a unique national culture and identity in Britain. After the Norman Conquest, the ruling class spoke Norman French, while peasants continued to use Anglo-Saxon. Over time, these languages merged to form the English language.

By 1400, official documents in England were being written in English, which had also become the language of the royal court and Parliament.

Geoffrey Chaucer and English Literature

Around this time, Geoffrey Chaucer wrote a collection of poems in English, telling the stories of a group of pilgrims travelling to Canterbury. The work, known as The Canterbury Tales, describes the travellers and the stories they shared. It was one of the first books to be printed by William Caxton, the first person to use a printing press in England.

The Scots Language and Literature

In Scotland, many people continued to speak Gaelic, while the Scots language also developed. Several poets began writing in Scots, including John Barbour, who authored The Bruce, a poem about the Battle of Bannockburn.

Architectural and Cultural Changes

Castles and Cathedrals

The Middle Ages also saw changes in British architecture. Castles were built across Britain and Ireland, primarily for defence. While many of these castles are now in ruins, some, such as Windsor Castle and Edinburgh Castle, are still in use today. Additionally, grand cathedrals were constructed, such as Lincoln Cathedral, many of which remain active places of worship. Some of these cathedrals feature intricate stained glass windows, which depict stories from the Bible and the lives of Christian saints. A notable example of this stained glass can be seen in York Minster.

Trade and Immigration

During the medieval period, England became a significant trading nation. English wool emerged as an important export, drawing merchants and skilled workers from abroad. People came from France, Germany, Italy, and Holland to trade and work in England. Many brought specialized skills, such as weaving, engineering, glass manufacturing, and canal building, contributing to the country’s economic development.

The Wars of the Roses

Origins of the Conflict

In 1455, a civil war erupted in England over the question of who should be king. This conflict, known as the Wars of the Roses, was fought between two powerful families: the House of Lancaster (symbolised by the red rose) and the House of York (symbolised by the white rose).

The Battle of Bosworth Field

The war came to a decisive end in 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth Field. During the battle, King Richard III of the House of York was killed. Henry Tudor, the leader of the House of Lancaster, emerged victorious and became King Henry VII. Following his victory, Henry married Elizabeth of York, uniting the two families.

The Creation of the Tudor Dynasty

The new royal symbol of the House of Tudor became a red rose with a white rose inside it, representing the unification of the Houses of Lancaster and York. This marked the beginning of the Tudor dynasty, which would go on to rule England for over a century.